Pets as Teachers of Empathy?

For centuries, humans and animals have co-existed. Over the years, researchers have sought to determine the biological relation between the two, exploring such topics as the evolution of the relationship between humans and animals and examining the wide variety of human interactions with animals. However, although these are interesting points of exploration, what if we instead saw human-animal interactions as types of social relationships, based on mutual learning and caring? Going even further, what if we saw pets as our teachers as well as our companions?

Historically, animals were seen primarily as objects to fulfill human needs, for example, as sources of income or food. Thus, the range of interactions between humans and animals appeared to be more limited than the range seen in our society today. For example, in hunter-gatherer societies, animals were simply hunted, killed, and used for food, shelter, or clothing. During the Ice Ages, the primary interactions between animals and humans were characterized as “man versus wild.” On the flip side, humans protected themselves from dangerous animals that may have seen them as food. Once humans began forming agricultural societies, the dynamics of the relationship between humans and animals began to change, as there were certain animals that were now kept near human residences as food sources (for example, milk) or to sell for income. It was inevitable that at some point one special animal would meet one special person, and the nature of the relationships we have with animals would evolve. By definition, a pet is an animal that is kept for non-utilitarian purposes, that is, for pleasure or companionship. According to the American Pet Products Association, approximately 62% of all households in the United States own at least one pet (www. americanpetproducts.org/press_industrytrends.asp). The American Veterinary Medical Association has found that cats and dogs are by far the most popular pets, with approximately 72 million dogs and 82 million cats kept as pets in the United States (www.avma.org/reference/marketstats/ sourcebook.asp).

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With a majority of households owning pets, wouldn’t it be interesting and potentially beneficial to know how pets affect humans’ abilities to empathize and care more generally? It may also be interesting to consider if one type of pet is associated with empathy more than others. For questions whose implications can significantly impact our current society, which has been experiencing declines in empathy according to research coming from our lab group (Konrath, O’Brien, and Hsing, 2011), it’s disappointing to find that only a few researchers have chosen to examine these questions.

One of the primary topics we study in our lab is that of empathy, so it’s natural for us to wonder about the relationship between human-animal interactions and empathy. But this is also a more personal issue for both of us. For as long as we can remember, we have had pets. Between the two of us, our childhoods cover a wide range of human-animal interactions, including fish, birds, dogs, cats, rabbits, and yes, even snails. We can recall many times as a child when we would be upset and crying, and our dog or cat would come over and lick us, as if to acknowledge our pain and offer some type of social support. Call us crazy, but we would venture to say that these animals were displaying empathy. As Frans de Waal makes clear in his book The Age of Empathy: Nature’s Lessons for a Kinder Society (2009), many animals have the ability to be empathetic and protective toward their loved ones, just as we do. Although there are differences in their cognitive capacities to imagine our perspectives, when we are one of their loved ones, we can personally experience the power of their capacity to care. We might even be changed by it.

The few studies on this topic that exist suggest that there is a link between having pets and being more empathetic. A study comparing 60 pet owners and 60 non-pet owners in Tennessee found that college-aged pet owners displayed a higher level of both empathy and interpersonal skills compared to non-pet owners (Hyde, Kurdek, and Larson, 1983). Thus, it is possible that pet ownership is beneficial in developing empathic capacities. Several other studies have reached similar conclusions about pet ownership. For example, researchers have found that while pet ownership is related to higher levels of empathy overall, the type of pets associated with the highest levels of empathy is dogs (Daly and Morton,

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2003; 2009). However, as we know, correlation studies cannot really help determine causality. It is possible that people who choose to care for pets are already more empathic before they even adopt them. It is also possible that daily positive interactions with animals can help to teach us empathy, just as empathy can be built from many other social interactions. Several studies have found that merely interacting with an animal affects empathy levels and attitudes, whether that animal is directly present, as in a classroom, or whether the interaction is more virtual (Kotrschal and Ortbauer, 2003; Tsai and Kaufman, 2009). That might explain all those popular puppy Web sites (for example, www.dailypuppy.com).

Nancy Eisenberg and other developmental psychologists find that children tend to display empathy very early (Eisenberg, 1990). Considering this, could it be that the specific period in which pets are introduced into a family makes a difference? For example, many parents choose to get a pet when they feel their child has reached a particular age and desire to teach them a little lesson on responsibility through the care of the animal. If pets were first introduced in adulthood, would there still be potential effects on empathy? Or is there a critical period when the brain is developing core features of empathy in which human-animal interactions are likely to facilitate other types of relationships?

An interesting finding from recent research is that during periods of eye gaze between humans and their dogs, oxytocin levels rise in both of them (Nagasawa, Kikusui, Onaka, and Ohta, 2009). Since oxytocin is associated with feelings of connection and wellbeing, that is good news for not only us, avid dog lovers, but to the 72 million dogs who are owned in the United States. For those who are not dog owners, a couple of university libraries (including our own) have recently been providing the opportunity to “sign out” a dog for 30-minute periods to experience these feelings of warmth and positivity during stressful times like exam periods (abcnews.go.com/Health/StressCoping/checking-monty-yale-law-students-reduce-stress-therapy/story?id=13206568). Although we are aware of no data on the efficacy of such unusual stress management interventions, clearly the potential benefits of human-animal interactions are becoming widely known and accepted.

Other research has found that animal abusers are more

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likely to commit actual crimes or abuse toward humans (Lockwood & Ascione, 1998). In other words, the humane treatment of animals is correlated with a greater level of prosocial behavior directed to other people. Interestingly, vegetarians score higher in empathy compared to non-vegetarians (Preylo & Arikawa, 2008), a finding which seems to be explained by their more inclusive views of all living beings. Although many utilitarian attitudes toward animals continue to exist—that the sole usefulness of animals is to provide us food and clothing—this type of view seems to be at odds with developing our maximal potential empathy as humans. It is ironic that many people, if pressed, will say that the trait that makes us human (and differentiates us from animals) is our empathy. In fact, when we display empathy we are expressing behavior that exists precisely because of our own animal nature.

Overall, although there is limited research on this topic, there is some consensus. Somehow, the presence of pets, when coupled with positive relationships with them, may promote higher empathy among humans. Research on social relationships and health suggests that everyday interactions of giving and receiving that occur within any kind of relationship have implications for our emotional and physical health. There is a lesson to learn through human-animal interactions. What is that lesson? Well, everyone could use a friend and someone to be there in a time of need.

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